What Are the Doctors Called That Work in the Baby Nursery

Branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents

This commodity is about the branch of medicine. For the journal, see Pediatrics (journal). For the co-operative of dentistry, see Pedodontics.

Pediatrics

A pediatrician examines a newborn.
Focus	Children, adolescents, and Young adults
Subdivisions	Paediatric cardiology, neonatology, disquisitional care, pediatric oncology, infirmary medicine, chief care, others (see below)
Significant diseases	Congenital diseases, Infectious diseases, Babyhood cancer, Mental disorders
Significant tests	Earth Health Organization Child Growth Standards
Specialist	Pediatrician
Glossary	Glossary of medicine

Paediatrics (also spelled pediatrics or pædiatrics) is the co-operative of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends people seek pediatric care through the historic period of 21.^{[one] [2]} In the Uk, paediatrics covers patients until historic period 18.^[3] Worldwide age limits of pediatrics have been trending upwards yr over year.^[iv] A medical medico who specializes in this surface area is known as a pediatrician, or paediatrician. The discussion pediatrics and its cognates mean "healer of children"; they derive from ii Greek words: παῖς (pais "kid") and ἰατρός (iatros "doctor, healer"). Pediatricians work in hospitals and children'south hospitals particularly those working in its subspecialties (e.g. neonatology), and as outpatient main care physicians.

History [edit]

The earliest mentions of child-specific medical problems appears in the Hippocratic Corpus, published in the fifth century B.C., and the famous Sacred Illness. These publications discussed topics such as childhood epilepsy and premature births. From the first to fourth centuries A.D., Greek philosophers and physicians Celsus, Soranus of Ephesus, Aretaeus, Galen, and Oribasius, also discussed specific illnesses affecting children in their works, such equally rashes, epilepsy, and meningitis.^[5] Already Hippocrates, Aristotle, Celsus, Soranus, and Galen^{[half dozen]} understood the differences in growing and maturing organisms that necessitated different treatment: Ex toto non sic pueri ut viri curari debent ("In general, boys should not be treated in the same way every bit men").^[7]

Even though some pediatric works existed during this time, they were deficient and rarely published due to a lack of noesis in pediatric medicine. It was in 1472, in Padua, that Paolo Bagellardo, an Italian doc, authored the first medical book entirely about childhood illnesses - "De infantium aegritudinibus ac remediis."^[5] Some of the oldest traces of pediatrics can be discovered in Aboriginal India where children's doctors were chosen kumara bhrtya.^{[half dozen]} Sushruta Samhita an ayurvedic text, composed during the 6th century BC contains the text well-nigh pediatrics.^[viii] Another ayurvedic text from this menses is Kashyapa Samhita.^{[9] [10]}

A second century AD manuscript past the Greek physician and gynecologist Soranus of Ephesus dealt with neonatal pediatrics.^[11] Byzantine physicians Oribasius, Aëtius of Amida, Alexander Trallianus, and Paulus Aegineta contributed to the field.^[6] The Byzantines also congenital brephotrophia (crêches).^[6] Islamic Gold Age writers served as a bridge for Greco-Roman and Byzantine medicine and added ideas of their own, peculiarly Haly Abbas, Yahya Serapion, Abulcasis, Avicenna, and Averroes. The Persian philosopher and doctor al-Razi (865–925) published a monograph on pediatrics titled Diseases in Children as well as the first definite clarification of smallpox as a clinical entity.^{[12] [thirteen]} As well amongst the offset books nearly pediatrics was Libellus [Opusculum] de aegritudinibus et remediis infantium 1472 ("Petty Book on Children Diseases and Treatment"), by the Italian pediatrician Paolo Bagellardo.^[xiv] In sequence came Bartholomäus Metlinger's Ein Regiment der Jungerkinder 1473, Cornelius Roelans (1450–1525) no championship Buchlein, or Latin compendium, 1483, and Heinrich von Louffenburg (1391–1460) Versehung des Leibs written in 1429 (published 1491), together grade the Pediatric Incunabula, iv groovy medical treatises on children'due south physiology and pathology.^[vi]

While more data almost childhood diseases became available, there was piffling bear witness that children received the same kind of medical care that adults did.^[15] It was during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that medical experts started offering specialized intendance for children.^[5] The Swedish physician Nils Rosén von Rosenstein (1706–1773) is considered to be the founder of modern pediatrics as a medical specialty,^{[sixteen] [17]} while his work The diseases of children, and their remedies (1764) is considered to be "the first modern textbook on the subject".^[eighteen] Yet, information technology was not until the nineteenth century that medical professionals acknowledged pediatrics every bit a split up field of medicine. The outset pediatric-specific publications appeared between the 1790s and the 1920s.^[19] The term pediatrics was first introduced in English in 1859 past Dr. Abraham Jacobi. In 1860, he became "the first dedicated professor of pediatrics in the globe."^[20] Pediatrics as a specialized field of medicine continued to develop in the mid-19th century; German dr. Abraham Jacobi (1830–1919) is known as the begetter of American pediatrics because of his many contributions to the field.^{[21] [22]} He received his medical training in Frg and afterwards practiced in New York City.

The first mostly accepted pediatric infirmary is the Hôpital des Enfants Malades (French: Hospital for Ill Children), which opened in Paris in June 1802 on the site of a previous orphanage.^[23] From its commencement, this famous hospital accepted patients up to the historic period of fifteen years,^[24] and it continues to this day as the pediatric sectionalisation of the Necker-Enfants Malades Infirmary, created in 1920 by merging with the physically contiguous Necker Hospital, founded in 1778.

In other European countries, the Charité (a hospital founded in 1710) in Berlin established a divide Pediatric Pavilion in 1830, followed by like institutions at St. petersburg in 1834, and at Vienna and Breslau (now Wrocław), both in 1837. In 1852 Britain's commencement pediatric hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street was founded by Charles West.^[23] The first Children'south hospital in Scotland opened in 1860 in Edinburgh.^[25] In the United states, the first similar institutions were the Children'south Hospital of Philadelphia, which opened in 1855, and then Boston Children's Infirmary (1869).^[26] Subspecialties in pediatrics were created at the Harriet Lane Home at Johns Hopkins past Edwards A. Park.^[27]

Differences between developed and pediatric medicine [edit]

The body size differences are paralleled by maturation changes. The smaller torso of an babe or neonate is essentially different physiologically from that of an adult. Congenital defects, genetic variance, and developmental issues are of greater business concern to pediatricians than they often are to adult physicians. A common aphorism is that children are not just "little adults".^[28] The clinician must accept into account the immature physiology of the babe or kid when because symptoms, prescribing medications, and diagnosing illnesses.

Pediatric physiology direct impacts the pharmacokinetic properties of drugs that enter the body. The absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of medications differ between developing children and grown adults.^{[28] [29] [xxx]} Despite completed studies and reviews, continual research is needed to improve empathize how these factors should touch on the decisions of healthcare providers when prescribing and administering medications to the pediatric population.^[28]

Absorption [edit]

Many drug absorption differences between pediatric and developed populations revolve around the stomach. Neonates and young infants have increased breadbasket pH due to decreased acid secretion, thereby creating a more bones environment for drugs that are taken by mouth.^{[29] [28] [thirty]} Acid is essential to degrading certain oral drugs before systemic absorption. Therefore, the assimilation of these drugs in children is greater than in adults due to decreased breakdown and increased preservation in a less acidic gastric space.^[29]

Children likewise have an extended charge per unit of gastric emptying, which slows the rate of drug absorption.^{[29] [thirty]}

Drug absorption also depends on specific enzymes that come in contact with the oral drug as it travels through the body. Supply of these enzymes increment equally children continue to develop their gastrointestinal tract.^{[29] [xxx]} Pediatric patients accept underdeveloped proteins, which leads to decreased metabolism and increased serum concentrations of specific drugs. However, prodrugs experience the opposite outcome considering enzymes are necessary for allowing their active form to enter systemic circulation.^[29]

Distribution [edit]

Percentage of total trunk h2o and extracellular fluid volume both decrease as children grow and develop with time. Pediatric patients thus have a larger volume of distribution than adults, which directly affects the dosing of hydrophilic drugs such as beta-lactam antibiotics like ampicillin.^[29] Thus, these drugs are administered at greater weight-based doses or with adjusted dosing intervals in children to account for this key difference in body composition.^{[29] [28]}

Infants and neonates also have fewer plasma proteins. Thus, highly protein-jump drugs have fewer opportunities for protein binding, leading to increased distribution.^[28]

Metabolism [edit]

Drug metabolism primarily occurs via enzymes in the liver and can vary according to which specific enzymes are afflicted in a specific phase of development.^[29] Phase I and Phase II enzymes have dissimilar rates of maturation and evolution, depending on their specific mechanism of activity (i.e. oxidation, hydrolysis, acetylation, methylation, etc.). Enzyme chapters, clearance, and half-life are all factors that contribute to metabolism differences between children and adults.^{[29] [xxx]} Drug metabolism tin even differ within the pediatric population, separating neonates and infants from young children.^[28]

Elimination [edit]

Drug elimination is primarily facilitated via the liver and kidneys.^[29] In infants and young children, the larger relative size of their kidneys leads to increased renal clearance of medications that are eliminated through urine.^[30] In preterm neonates and infants, their kidneys are slower to mature and thus are unable to clear as much drug every bit fully developed kidneys. This can crusade unwanted drug build-upward, which is why it is important to consider lower doses and greater dosing intervals for this population.^{[28] [29]} Diseases that negatively affect kidney office can also take the same effect and thus warrant similar considerations.^[29]

Pediatric autonomy in healthcare [edit]

A major difference betwixt the do of pediatric and adult medicine is that children, in most jurisdictions and with certain exceptions, cannot make decisions for themselves. The problems of guardianship, privacy, legal responsibility, and informed consent must ever be considered in every pediatric process. Pediatricians often take to treat the parents and sometimes, the family unit, rather than just the kid. Adolescents are in their own legal class, having rights to their own health intendance decisions in sure circumstances. The concept of legal consent combined with the non-legal consent (assent) of the child when considering treatment options, especially in the face of atmospheric condition with poor prognosis or complicated and painful procedures/surgeries, ways the pediatrician must have into account the desires of many people, in addition to those of the patient.

History of Pediatric Autonomy [edit]

The term autonomy is traceable to ethical theory and law, where it states that autonomous individuals can make decisions based on their ain logic.^[31] Hippocrates was the beginning to use the term in a medical setting. He created a lawmaking of ideals for doctors called the Hippocratic Oath that highlighted the importance of putting patients' interests commencement, making autonomy for patients a superlative priority in wellness care.^[32]

In aboriginal times, social club did not view pediatric medicine as essential or scientific.^[33] Experts considered professional medicine unsuitable for treating children. Children likewise had no rights. Fathers regarded their children as property, so their children's health decisions were entrusted to them.^[5] As a result, mothers, midwives, "wise women," and general practitioners treated the children instead of doctors.^[33] Since mothers could non rely on professional medicine to take intendance of their children, they adult their own methods, such as using alkaline metal soda ash to remove the vernix at birth and treating teething pain with opium or wine. The absence of proper pediatric care, rights, and laws in health care to prioritize children's health led to many of their deaths. Ancient Greeks and Romans sometimes even killed salubrious female babies and infants with deformities since they had no acceptable medical handling and no laws prohibiting infanticide.^[v]

In the twentieth century, medical experts began to put more accent on children'due south rights. In 1989, in the United Nations Rights of the Child Convention, medical experts developed the Best Interest Standard of Kid to prioritize children'due south rights and all-time interests. This consequence marked the onset of pediatric autonomy. In 1995, the American University of Pediatrics (AAP) finally acknowledged the Best Interest Standard of a Kid as an ethical principle for pediatric decision-making, and information technology is still being used today.^[32]

[edit]

The bulk of the time, parents accept the potency to decide what happens to their child. Philosopher John Locke argued that information technology is the responsibility of parents to raise their children and that God gave them this authorization. In modern society, Jeffrey Blustein, modernistic philosopher and author of the book Parents and Children: The Ethics of Family, argues that parental dominance is granted because the child requires parents to satisfy their needs. He believes that parental autonomy is more about parents providing good care for their children and treating them with respect than parents having rights.^[34] The researcher Kyriakos Martakis, MD, MSc, explains that enquiry shows parental influence negatively affects children'south ability to course autonomy. Withal, involving children in the determination-making procedure allows children to develop their cognitive skills and create their own opinions and, thus, decisions near their health. Parental authority affects the degree of autonomy the child patient has. As a result, in Argentina, the new National Civil and Commercial Lawmaking has enacted diverse changes to the healthcare organisation to encourage children and adolescents to develop autonomy. It has become more than crucial to allow children take accountability for their ain wellness decisions.^[35]

In nigh cases, the pediatrician, parent, and child work as a team to brand the all-time possible medical decision. The pediatrician has the right to intervene for the child's welfare and seek advice from an ideals committee. Still, in recent studies, authors have denied that complete autonomy is nowadays in pediatric healthcare. The same moral standards should utilize to children as they exercise to adults. In support of this idea is the concept of paternalism, which negates autonomy when it is in the patient'south interests. This concept aims to go along the child'southward best interests in mind regarding autonomy. Pediatricians can interact with patients and help them make decisions that will benefit them, thus enhancing their autonomy. Even so, radical theories that question a child's moral worth go on to exist debated today.^[35] Authors often question whether the treatment and equality of a child and an adult should exist the same. Author Tamar Schapiro notes that children need nurturing and cannot exercise the same level of authority as adults.^[36] Hence, continuing the give-and-take on whether children are capable of making of import wellness decisions until this day.

Modernistic Advancements [edit]

Co-ordinate to the Subcommittee of Clinical Ethics of the Argentinean Pediatric Society (SAP), children can empathize moral feelings at all ages and tin can make reasonable decisions based on those feelings. Therefore, children and teens are deemed capable of making their own health decisions when they reach the age of xiii. Recently, studies made on the decision-making of children have challenged that historic period to be 12.^[35]

Technology has made several mod advancements that contribute to the future development of child autonomy, for example, unsolicited findings (U.F.s) of pediatric exome sequencing. They are findings based on pediatric exome sequencing that explicate in greater detail the intellectual disability of a child and predict to what extent it will affect the child in the future. Genetic and intellectual disorders in children brand them incapable of making moral decisions, so people look down upon this kind of testing because the child's future autonomy is at take chances. It is still in question whether parents should request these types of testing for their children. Medical experts argue that it could endanger the autonomous rights the child will possess in the time to come. However, the parents contend that genetic testing would benefit the welfare of their children since information technology would let them to brand better health care decisions.^[37] Exome sequencing for children and the conclusion to grant parents the correct to request them is a medically ethical issue that many still debate today.

Education requirements [edit]

Aspiring medical students volition need 4 years of undergraduate courses at a higher or university, which will get them a BS, BA or other available'southward degree. After completing college, future pediatricians volition need to attend four years of medical school (MD/DO/MBBS) and later practise 3 more years of residency training, the first year of which is called "internship." Afterwards completing the three years of residency, physicians are eligible to get certified in pediatrics past passing a rigorous test that deals with medical conditions related to young children.

In high schoolhouse, time to come pediatricians are required to take basic science classes such as biology, chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, and calculus. It is also appropriate to learn a strange language (preferably Castilian in the United States) and be involved in high schoolhouse organizations and extracurricular activities. Afterwards high schoolhouse, college students simply need to fulfill the bones science course requirements that most medical schools recommend and volition demand to set up to accept the MCAT (Medical College Access Exam) in their junior or early senior year in college. One time attention medical schoolhouse, student courses will focus on bones medical sciences like human anatomy, physiology, chemistry, etc., for the first iii years, the second year of which is when medical students start to get hands-on experience with actual patients.^[38]

Preparation of pediatricians [edit]

Pediatrics

Occupation
Names	Pediatrician Paediatrician
Occupation blazon	Specialty
Activity sectors	Medicine
Description
Education required	Doctor of Medicine Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine Bachelor of Medicine, Available of Surgery (MBBS/MBChB)
Fields of employment	Hospitals, Clinics

The training of pediatricians varies considerably across the world. Depending on jurisdiction and university, a medical degree class may be either undergraduate-entry or graduate-entry. The former usually takes five or six years and has been usual in the Commonwealth. Entrants to graduate-entry courses (as in the US), usually lasting 4 or five years, have previously completed a three- or iv-yr academy degree, commonly but past no means always in sciences. Medical graduates hold a degree specific to the state and university in and from which they graduated. This degree qualifies that medical practitioner to become licensed or registered under the laws of that particular land, and sometimes of several countries, subject to requirements for "internship" or "provisional registration".

Pediatricians must undertake further training in their chosen field. This may take from four to xi or more than years depending on jurisdiction and the degree of specialization.

In the United states, a medical schoolhouse graduate wishing to specialize in pediatrics must undergo a three-year residency composed of outpatient, inpatient, and disquisitional care rotations. Subspecialties within pediatrics require further training in the form of 3-year fellowships. Subspecialties include critical care, gastroenterology, neurology, communicable diseases, hematology/oncology, rheumatology, pulmonology, child abuse, emergency medicine, endocrinology, neonatology, and others.^[39]

In most jurisdictions, entry-level degrees are common to all branches of the medical profession, only in some jurisdictions, specialization in pediatrics may begin before completion of this degree. In some jurisdictions, pediatric preparation is begun immediately following the completion of entry-level training. In other jurisdictions, junior medical doctors must undertake generalist (unstreamed) training for a number of years before commencing pediatric (or whatever other) specialization. Specialist training is often largely nether the control of 'pediatric organizations (see below) rather than universities and depends on the jurisdiction.

Subspecialties [edit]

Subspecialties of pediatrics include:

(not an exhaustive list)

• Addiction medicine (multidisciplinary)
• Adolescent medicine
• Child abuse pediatrics
• Clinical informatics
• Developmental-behavioral pediatrics
• Genetics and Metabolism
• Headache medicine
• Hospital medicine
• Medical toxicology
• Neonatology/Perinatology
• Pain medicine (multidisciplinary)
• Palliative intendance (multidisciplinary)
• Pediatric allergy and immunology
• Pediatric cardiology
  • Pediatric cardiac disquisitional care
• Pediatric critical intendance
  • Neurocritical intendance
  • Pediatric cardiac critical care
• Pediatric emergency medicine
• Pediatric endocrinology
• Pediatric gastroenterology
  • Transplant hepatology
• Pediatric hematology
• Pediatric infectious disease
• Pediatric nephrology
• Pediatric oncology
  • Pediatric neuro-oncology
• Pediatric pulmonology
• Main care
• Pediatric rheumatology
• Slumber medicine (multidisciplinary)
• Social pediatrics
• Sports medicine

Other specialties that intendance for children [edit]

(non an exhaustive list)

• Child neurology
  • Addiction medicine (multidisciplinary)
  • Brain injury medicine
  • Clinical neurophysiology
  • Epilepsy
  • Headache medicine
  • Neurocritical care
  • Neuroimmunology
  • Neuromuscular medicine
  • Neuropsychiatry
  • Hurting medicine (multidisciplinary)
  • Palliative care (multidisciplinary)
  • Pediatric neuro-oncology
  • Slumber medicine (multidisciplinary)
• Child and boyish psychiatry, subspecialty of psychiatry
• Neurodevelopmental disabilities
• Pediatric anesthesiology, subspecialty of anesthesiology
• Pediatric dentistry, subspecialty of dentistry
• Pediatric dermatology, subspecialty of dermatology
• Pediatric gynecology
• Pediatric neurosurgery, subspecialty of neurosurgery
• Pediatric ophthalmology, subspecialty of ophthalmology
• Pediatric orthopedic surgery, subspecialty of orthopedic surgery
• Pediatric otolaryngology, subspecialty of otolaryngology
• Pediatric plastic surgery, subspecialty of plastic surgery
• Pediatric radiology, subspecialty of radiology
• Pediatric rehabilitation medicine, subspecialty of physical medicine and rehabilitation
• Pediatric surgery, subspecialty of full general surgery
• Pediatric urology, subspecialty of urology

Meet too [edit]

• American University of Pediatrics
• American Osteopathic Board of Pediatrics
• Center on Media and Child Health (CMCH)
• Children's hospital
• Listing of pediatric organizations
• List of pediatrics journals
• Medical specialty
• Pediatric Oncall
• Hurting in babies
• Majestic College of Paediatrics and Child Wellness

References [edit]

1. ^ "Choosing a Pediatrician for Your New Baby (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth". kidshealth.org . Retrieved thirteen July 2020.
2. ^ "Age limits of pediatrics". Pediatrics. 81 (5): 736. May 1988. doi:10.1542/peds.81.v.736. PMID 3357740. S2CID 245164191. Retrieved xviii Apr 2017.
3. ^ "Paediatrics" (PDF). nhs.united kingdom . Retrieved 2 July 2020.
4. ^ Sawyer, Susan Yard.; McNeil, Robyn; Francis, Kate L.; Matskarofski, Juliet Z.; Patton, George C.; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A.; Esangbedo, Dorothy O.; Klein, Jonathan D. (1 November 2019). "The historic period of paediatrics". The Lancet Kid & Adolescent Health. 3 (xi): 822–830. doi:ten.1016/S2352-4642(xix)30266-iv. ISSN 2352-4642. PMID 31542355. S2CID 202732818.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e} Duffin, Jacalyn (2010). History of Medicine, 2d Edition: A Scandalously Short Introduction. University of Toronto Press.
6. ^ ^{a b c d east} Colón, A. R.; Colón, P. A. (January 1999). Nurturing children: a history of pediatrics. Greenwood Press. ISBN9780313310805 . Retrieved xx October 2012.
7. ^ Celsus, De Medicina, Volume three, Chapter 7, § one.
8. ^ John G. Raffensperger. Children's Surgery: A Worldwide History. McFarland. p. 21.
9. ^ David Levinson; Karen Christensen. Encyclopedia of mod Asia. Vol. 4. Charles Scribner'due south Sons. p. 116.
10. ^ Desai, A.B. Textbook Of Paediatrics. Orient blackswan. p. 1.
11. ^ P.M. Dunn, "Soranus of Ephesus (circa AD 98–138) and perinatal care in Roman times", Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 1995 July; 73(1): F51–F52.[1]
12. ^ Elgood, Cyril (2010). A Medical History of Persia and The Eastern Caliphate (1st ed.). London: Cambridge. pp. 202–203. ISBN978-1-108-01588-2. By writing a monograph on 'Diseases in Children' he may besides be looked upon as the father of paediatrics.
13. ^ U.S. National Library of Medicine, "Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts, Al-Razi, the Clinician" [2]
14. ^ "Achar South Textbook Of Pediatrics (Third Edition)". A. B. Desai (ed.) (1989). p.1. ISBN 81-250-0440-8
15. ^ Stern, Alexandra Minna; Markel, Howard (2002). Formative Years: Children's Health in the United states of america, 1880-2000. Academy of Michigan Press. pp. 23–24. doi:10.3998/mpub.17065. ISBN978-0-472-02503-nine.
16. ^ Lock, Stephen; John M. Last; George Dunea (2001). The Oxford illustrated companion to medicine . Oxford Academy Printing United states. p. 173. ISBN978-0-nineteen-262950-0 . Retrieved 9 July 2010. Rosen von Rosenstein.
17. ^ Roberts, Michael (2003). The Age of Liberty: Sweden 1719–1772. Cambridge Academy Press. p. 216. ISBN978-0-521-52707-1 . Retrieved 9 July 2010.
18. ^ Dallas, John. "Classics of Kid Care". Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2010.
19. ^ Duffin, Jacalyn (29 May 2010). History of Medicine, 2nd Edition: A Scandalously Short Introduction. University of Toronto Press.
20. ^ Stern, Alexandra Minna; Markel, Howard (2002). Formative Years: Children'due south Health in the United States, 1880-2000. Academy of Michigan Printing. pp. 23–24. doi:x.3998/mpub.17065. ISBN978-0-472-02503-9.
21. ^ "Broadribb's Introductory Pediatric Nursing". Nancy T. Hatfield (2007). p.four. ISBN 0-7817-7706-2
22. ^ "Jacobi Medical Eye - General Information". Archived from the original on xviii April 2006. Retrieved 6 Apr 2006.
23. ^ ^{a b} Ballbriga, Angel (1991). "One century of pediatrics in Europe (section: development of pediatric hospitals in Europe)". In Nichols, Burford L.; et al. (eds.). History of Paediatrics 1850–1950. Nestlé Diet Workshop Series. Vol. 22. New York: Raven Printing. pp. 6–8. ISBN0-88167-695-0.
24. ^ official history site (in French) of nineteenth century paediatric hospitals in Paris
25. ^ Young, D.One thousand. (August 1999). "The Bricklayer Chocolate-brown Lecture: Scots and paediatric surgery". Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons Edinburgh. 44 (four): 211–5. PMID 10453141. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014.
26. ^ Pearson, Howard A. (1991). "Pediatrics in the United States". In Nichols, Burford L.; et al. (eds.). History of Paediatrics 1850–1950. Nestlé Diet Workshop Series. Vol. 22. New York: Raven Press. pp. 55–63. ISBN0-88167-695-0.
27. ^ "Commentaries: Edwards A Park". Pediatrics. American Academy of Pediatrics. 44 (6): 897–901. 1969. doi:10.1542/peds.44.6.897. PMID 4903838. S2CID 43298798.
28. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} O'Hara, Kate (2016). "Paediatric pharmacokinetics and drug doses". Australian Prescriber. 39 (6): 208–210. doi:x.18773/austprescr.2016.071. ISSN 0312-8008. PMC5155058. PMID 27990048.
29. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j m l m} Wagner, Jonathan; Abdel-Rahman, Susan M. (2013). "Pediatric pharmacokinetics". Pediatrics in Review. 34 (half dozen): 258–269. doi:10.1542/pir.34-6-258. ISSN 1526-3347. PMID 23729775.
30. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Batchelor, Hannah Katharine; Marriott, John Francis (2015). "Paediatric pharmacokinetics: key considerations". British Periodical of Clinical Pharmacology. 79 (three): 395–404. doi:10.1111/bcp.12267. ISSN 1365-2125. PMC4345950. PMID 25855821.
31. ^ Katz, Aviva Fifty.; Webb, Sally A.; Committee ON BIOETHICS; Macauley, Robert C.; Mercurio, Mark R.; Moon, Margaret R.; Okun, Alexander Fifty.; Opel, Douglas J.; Statter, Mindy B. (1 August 2016). "Informed Consent in Decision-making in Pediatric Do". Pediatrics. 138 (2): e20161485. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-1485. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 27456510. S2CID 7951515.
32. ^ ^{a b} Mazur, Kate A.; Berg, Stacey L., eds. (2020). Ethical Bug in Pediatric Hematology/Oncology. pp. 13–21. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22684-8. ISBN978-3-030-22683-ane. S2CID 208302429.
33. ^ ^{a b} Stern, Alexandra Minna; Markel, Howard (2002). Formative Years: Children's Wellness in the United States, 1880-2000. University of Michigan Press. pp. 23–24. doi:10.3998/mpub.17065. ISBN978-0-472-02503-9.
34. ^ Friedman, Ross, Lainie (2004). Children, families, and wellness care determination making. Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-925154-1. OCLC 756393117.
35. ^ ^{a b c} Martakis, 1000.; Schröder-Bäck, P.; Brand, H. (1 June 2018). "Developing child autonomy in pediatric healthcare: towards an ethical model". Archivos Argentinos de Pediatria. 116 (3): e401–e408. doi:10.5546/aap.2018.eng.e401. ISSN 0325-0075. PMID 29756714. S2CID 46889502.
36. ^ Schapiro, Tamar (1 July 1999). "What Is a Child?". Ethics. 109 (4): 715–738. doi:ten.1086/233943. ISSN 0014-1704. S2CID 170129444.
37. ^ Dondorp, Westward.; Bolt, I.; Tibben, A.; De Wert, G.; Van Summeren, M. (i September 2021). "'We Should View Him as an Individual': The Role of the Child's Future Autonomy in Shared Decision-making Almost Unsolicited Findings in Pediatric Exome Sequencing". Wellness Intendance Assay. 29 (iii): 249–261. doi:10.1007/s10728-020-00425-7. ISSN 1573-3394. PMID 33389383. S2CID 230112761.
38. ^ "What Instruction Is Required to Be a Pediatrician?". Retrieved 14 June 2017.
39. ^ "CoPS". world wide web.pedsubs.org. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved fourteen August 2015.

Further reading [edit]

• BMC Pediatrics - open access
• Clinical Pediatrics
• Developmental Review - partial open admission
• JAMA Pediatrics
• The Journal of Pediatrics - partial open access

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Eatables has media related to Pediatrics.

• Pediatrics Directory at Curlie
• Pediatric Wellness Directory at OpenMD

hillcorgunts.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatrics

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